Notes on Adult Learners (Merriam and Caffarella)

To facilitate the process of learning, it is especially important to know who the adult learner is, how the social context shapes the learning that adults are engaged in, why adults are involved in learning activities, how adults learn, and how aging affects learning abilities. (ix)

Three conditions characteristic of the current sociocultural context that are shaping the learning needs of adults in today's world:

1. Changing Demographics ("more adults and an increase in the number of older adults are two demographic factors influencing the provision of learning activities in our society" [9]; In the united states, therea re more adults than youth, the number of older adults is growing, the population as a whole is better educated than ever before, and the population is more diverse--racially, ethnically, and culturally--than ever before" [11])
2. The global economy ("A global economy, the shift to a service and information society, and consequent changes in the configuration of the labor force are determining to a large extent where learning takes place, what is offered, and who participates [17])
3. Information and Technology (7)

As Hadfield (2003, p. 19) observes, "Customer is exactly how adult learners think of themselves, and they hold our institutions of higher education accountable for providing paid-for results and educational experiences that make a difference in their lives. They pay for these experiences with precious resources, not the least of which is their time. They are savvy, demanding customers who know how to shop. When they do not find what they ant at one school, they transfer to another." (14)

In a postmodern world characterized by large-scale changes in global activity resulting in economic, social, and political uncertainty, adult education tends to be an entrepreneurial instrument of the so-called new world order. Adult education is particularly sensitive to a restructured workplace, reliance on technology to produce knowledge, and a market demand for multiskilled workers (23)

Section: "LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND LEARNING CONCEPTS"

appreciating and taking into consideration the prior knowledge and experience of learners has become a basic assumption of our practice as educators of adults, wherever this knowledge was learned. (para 2)

A framework for three types of settings in which learning occurs for adults: formal institutional settings, non-formal settings, and informal contexts. This framework is an adaptation of one proposed by Coombs (1985, 1989; Coombs, Prosser, & Ahmed, 1973), in which he classified lifelong learning according to these three broad categories.

• Formal education is highly institutionalized, bureaucratic, curriculum driven, and formally recognized with grades, diplomas, or certificates... Historically, formal education, whether it be in public schools or postsecondary institutions, has had as its primary mission to serve youth. In more recent years the populations of some of these institutions—such as many community colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and colleges and universities—have changed so dramatically that they are now reaching more adult learners than traditional-age students. In fact, nearly half of the students in postsecondary institutions are over the age of twenty-four (Kasworm, Sandmann, & Sissel, 2000).
• The term nonformal education has been used most often to describe organized learning opportunities outside the formal educational system. These offerings tend to be short-term, voluntary, and have few if any prerequisites. However, they typically have a curriculum and often a facilitator. Nonformal educational opportunities are usually local and community-based, such as those programs offered by museums, libraries, service clubs, religious and civic organizations; mass media is also classified as a nonformal delivery system... While nonformal adult education is outside the formal schooling or education system, three subtypes can be discerned, all of which are “reactions to the limitations or failures of formal education” (Brennan, 1997, p. 187). The first subtype proposed by Brennan (1997) is nonformal education as a complement to the formal system. Targeted are those who have dropped out of the formal system, or who, for whatever reason, failed to obtain basic skills such as literacy while in the system. Adult literacy classes offered by the local public library or community college would be an example of this type of nonformal education... Therefore, in describing nonformal educational learning opportunities, we highlight two types of these opportunities: community-based adult learning programs and indigenous learning... Other images of community-based learning programs include men and women learning to read and write while at the same time gaining marketable job skills, adults learning CPR at the local Red Cross, farmers being introduced to new methods and crops as a way to build economic control over their lives, and spouses who batter being taught non-violent ways of handling their anger and frustration... One common goal of many of these programs is their focus on social action and change for the betterment of some part of the community. Educators who work in these programs believe that education and training can be a powerful tool in assisting learners to take control over their own lives.
• Informal learning is the third form of learning in Coombs's typology. Defined by him as “the spontaneous, unstructured learning that goes on daily in the home and neighborhood, behind the school and on the playing field, in the workplace, marketplace, library and museum, and through the various mass media” informal learning is by far the most prevalent form of adult learning (Coombs, 1985, p. 92). Illeris (2004a) calls this type of learning “everyday learning” because it “takes place in all the private and non-organised contexts of everyday life” (p. 151). It is, as Livingstone (2001) points out, learning that takes place without the externally imposed curriculum of either formal or nonformal educative programs.
• Online learning is a form of distance education, which has a long history of serving adults who otherwise would not have access to continuing and higher education. The defining characteristic of all forms and generations of distance education is the separation of student and teacher in time or space.

Section: ADULT LEARNERS: WHO PARTICIPATES AND WHY

One clear trend is that the number of adults participating part-time in organized instruction has increased from a low of 10 percent in the 1969 survey to 14 percent in 1984, 38 percent in 1991, 40 percent in 1995, and 46 percent in 1999 (Kim & Creighton, 2000). In a comparison of the 1991 and 1999 NCES studies, Creighton and Hudson (2002) note an overall increase in participation “among virtually every group of adults” surveyed (p. ix).

Prior educational attainment, professional or managerial employment status, and household income were all positively related to participation. While in the 1990s surveys there was no significant difference in men and women's participation rates (Valentine, 1997), in this most recent survey, women had a slightly higher participation rate than men (49 versus 43 percent). For overall participation, there were no significant differences among White, Black, or Hispanic learners.

Compared to those who do not participate, participants in adult education are better educated, younger, and employed full-time and have higher incomes.

Hundreds of local, state, and national studies have asked adults their reasons for engaging in educational pursuits. In most of these studies, respondents are presented with a list of reasons why people might participate in organized learning activities and asked to indicate which ones apply to them. Most respondents report multiple reasons. If asked to indicate the main reason (as they were in the NCES surveys), however, they most commonly cite job-related motives.

Regardless of the study, the profile of the typical adult learner in formal educational activities remains remarkably consistent: white, middle-class, employed, younger, and better educated than the nonparticipant. Further, employment-related reasons account for the majority of participant interest in continuing education.